This area basically describes the history of classical music. When we speak of classical music, we are talking of the western influence. We aren't talking about the ancient eastern music of the asian continent.
Classical music can be organized in a variety of ways. This section divides music into six historical periods: Medieval, Renaissance, Baroque, Classical, Romantic and the Contemporary. Each period is briefly described. and includes a list of important composers, some song files provided by our generous sponsors, an option to buy some recordings, and recommended recordings. Also, there is an organized layout which we used to organize information on this site. We'd like to thank Classical Insites for helping us acquire sound files and information of these periods. Most of the information included in this site was from my notes after taking two years of music theory in high school. To learn more about any of these time periods, please contact a music theorist specializing in the specific time period you would like to know about.
History of Music Antiquity (a.k.A.) Medieval Period 0-1400 A.D.
When we explore Medieval music, we are dealing with the longest and most distant period of musical history. Saint Gregory is credited with organizing the huge repertory of chant that developed during the first centuries of the Christian church, hence the term Gregorian chant. He was pope from 590 to 604, and the Medieval era continued into the 1400s, so this period consists of almost a millennium's worth of music.
One of the principal difficulties in studying Medieval music is that a system for notating music developed only gradually. The first examples of musical notation date from around 900. For several centuries, notation only indicated what pitch (or note) to sing. The system for notating rhythm started in the 12th or 13th century.
Gregorian chant is monophonic, meaning music that consists of only one melodic line without accompaniment. The beauty of chant lies in the serene, undulating shapes of its melody. We do not know who wrote the melodies of Gregorian chant. Like folk melodies, the music probably mutated as it was passed down through generations and eventually reached its notated form.
Polyphony, music where two or more melodic lines are heard simultaneously, did not exist (or was not notated) until the 11th century. Unlike chant, polyphony required the participation of a composer to combine the melodic lines in a pleasing manner. Although most Medieval polyphonic music is anonymous--the names of the composers were either lost or never written down at all--there are composers whose work was so important that their names were preserved along with their music.
Sound -voices only -no instruments -no women -no kids Texture -Thin -Doesn’t change a lot. -monophonic- all parts in unison Harmony -none -no chords -no harmonic rhythm (speed of chord changes) -No chord progressions Melody -small intervals between notes -modal (follows modes) -limited range -big phrases -limited contour -3 Types of Chant Music: 1. syllabic- each syllable gets its own note 2. neumatic- small groups of notes per syllable 3. melismatic-extended group of notes per syllable -Melisma- different end melody. (Amen) Form -Through Composed (No theme or motive) Important Composers -Pope Gregory- Gregorian Chants -Saint Augustine -Boethius- Important Theorist -Hildegard von Bingen (1098-1179) -Perotin (c. 1155-1377) -Guillaume de Machaut (c. 1300-1377) -John Dunstable (c. 1385-1453) -Guillaume Dufay (c. 1400-1474) Rhythm -No meter -free rhythm -rhythm comes from text -slow tempo -sung slow because of echoes in big churches -sung for God. They sung slow so God could hear them. They didn’t want to make God mad. -Rhythmic Modes -This is the closest they had to meters. All in groups of three Miscellaneous -Ars. Antiqua- This is Latin for Old Art. This period is sometimes called Ars. Antiqua. -Gregorian Chants were the main thing. -Neumatic Notation- Different noatation system. They called their notes, neums. This was their type of writing music. It developed throughout this whole period. -No titles to any pieces. History of Music
Renaissance Period
1400-1600 A.D.
In the mid-1500s, a prominent bishop commented that music composed
for the church should reflect the meaning of the words so that the listeners
would be moved to piety. This concept seems like a no-brainer today,
but it was a fairly new idea at the time. To suggest that Medieval
composers had no desire to write "expressive" music would be unfair.
But, it was the rediscovery of ancient Greek ideals in the Renaissance that
inspired many musicians to explore the eloquent possibilities of their art.
The increased value of individualism in the Renaissance is reflected by the
changing role of the composer in society. Unlike most of their Medieval
predecessors, the great masters of the Renaissance were revered in their
own lifetimes. The technique of printing music, while slow to evolve,
helped in the preservation and distribution of music and musical ideas.
Sacred music was still predominant, though secular music became more
prevalent and more sophisticated. The repertory of instrumental music
also began to expand significantly. New instruments were invented,
including the clavichord and virginal (both keyboard instruments) and
many existing instruments were improved.
Masses and motets were the primary forms of sacred vocal polyphony.
Secular vocal forms included motets, madrigals and songs (generally
accompanied by lute or a small instrumental ensemble or "consort").
Instrumental pieces were usually short polyphonic works or music for
dancing.
Compared with the Medieval style, Renaissance polyphony was lush and
sonorous. The era between Josquin Desprez and Palestrina is known as
"the golden age of polyphony." Imitation--where one melodic line shares,
or imitates the same musical theme as a previous melodic line--became an
important polyphonic technique. Imitation was one method composers
used to make complex music more easily comprehensible and give the
listener a sense of structure. Imitative polyphony can be heard in the
masses and motets of composers from Josquin onward and is featured in
instrumental music by Byrd, Gibbons, and the Gabriellis.
Sound -women added to songs -men still sing -instruments added for accompaniment Texture -Little thicker then Medieval -polyphonic -different parts weave in and out of each other. -The parts interact. -very linear -homophonic -all parts move with melody in same rhythm -melody and accompaniment
Harmony -harmony comes from the melody -it results from interaction of melody -harmonies are perfect octaves, perfect fifths, and perfect fourths, (sometimes 3rds near cadence points) -no complete triads -harmony is introduced -harmonies are modal
Rhythm -Introduction of meter (from rhythmic modes) -Lots of syncopation- accents on upbeats
Melody -lots of notes -larger intervals than Medieval -bigger range than Medieval -Forms of Imitation of Melody- 1. Transposition- play same melody in different key 2. Cannon- start at different times 3. Augmentation- slow down note value; to make bigger, longer 4. diminution- to shorten tempo, play melody faster 5. Retrograde- play a melody backwards 6. Inversion- play upside down 7. Retrograde inversion- backwards and upside down
Important Composers Palestrina- wrote a ton of music (c. 1525-1594) -some people think he was the greatest composer of the Renaissance Monteverdi- He did a lot of instrumental work. -He laid the ground work for Opera. Gesualdo- Most people thought he was possessed by Satin (1560-1613) -extremely ahead of his time -not afraid to use dissonance Johannes Ockeghem (c. 1410-1497) Josquin Desprez (c. 1440-1521) Andrea Gabrielli (c. 1510-1586) Orlande de Lassus (1532-1594) William Byrd (1543-1623) Giovanni Gabrielli (c. 1554-1612) John Dowland (1563-1626) Orlando Gibbons (1583-1625)
Miscellaneous -period nicknamed "Ars Nova"- the new art -added instruments -added women -added polyphony -Renaissance means rebirth -instrumental music was written as if it were for voices.
History of Music
Baroque Period
1600-1750 A.D.
If one relates musical periods to architecture, the Medieval period might
be symbolized by Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, the Renaissance by the
Duomo in Florence, and the Baroque by Louis XIV's palace at
Versailles. Baroque music is often highly ornate, colorful and richly
textured when compared with its predecessors.
Opera was born at what is considered to be the very beginning of the
Baroque era, around 1600. This unique form combines poetry, theater,
the visual arts and music. It came about because a group of Italian
intellectuals wanted to recapture the spirit of ancient Greek drama in
which music played a key role. The first great opera was Orfeo, by
Claudio Monteverdi, first performed in 1607. Music's ability to express
human emotions and depict natural phenomenon was explored throughout
the Baroque period. Vivaldi's famous set of concertos, The Four
Seasons, is a famous example.
Although imitative polyphony remained fundamental to musical
composition, homophonic writing became increasingly important.
Homophonic music features a clear distinction between the melody line
and an subsidiary accompanimental part. This style was important in
opera and other solo vocal music because it focused the listener's
attention on the expressive melody of the singer.
The homophonic style gradually became prevalent in instrumental music
as well. Many Baroque works include a continuo part in which a
keyboard (harpsichord or organ) and bass instrument (cello or bassoon)
provide the harmonic underpinning of chords that accompanies the
melodic line(s).
New polyphonic forms were developed, and as in the Renaissance,
composers considered the art of counterpoint (the crafting of polyphony)
to be essential to their art. Canons and fugues, two very strict forms of
imitative polyphony, were extremely popular. Composers were even
expected to be able to improvise complex fugues on a moment's notice to
prove their skill.
The orchestra evolved during the early Baroque, starting as an
"accompanist" for operatic and vocal music. By the mid-1600s the
orchestra had a life of its own. The concerto was a favorite Baroque form
that featured a solo instrumentalist (or small ensemble of soloists) playing
"against" the orchestra, creating interesting contrasts of volume and
texture.
Many Baroque composers were also virtuoso performers. For example,
Archangelo Corelli was famous for his violin playing and Johann
Sebastian Bach was famous for his keyboard skills. The highly
ornamented quality of Baroque melody lent itself perfectly to such
displays of musical dexterity.
Sound -Instruments take over. They are the main source of music. -Strings -Double Reeds -Flute -Harpsichord -Horn -Percussion- Timpani -Trumpet -String Bass -Clarinets
Texture -sometimes thick, sometimes thin -chage in texture a lot -it is both polyphonic and homophonic -it is mostly polyphonic
Harmony -There are 3rds. Starting to stack eggs. Triad exist. -There is major and minor. -Harmony is no longer modal. It is now the Major Minor Tonal System. -There are chord progressions. -V to I finish in this period. (started in Renaissance) -ii---V---I came out of this period. (Jazz uses ii---V---I) -Equal Temperament tuning started in this period. -octave is divided evenly into 12 half steps. -Before, they used different tuning systems that didn’t work. -Equal temperament allowed changing of keys very easily. -Chromatics introduced because of equal temperament. -Simple 7th chords (major, minor, dominant, half diminished, fully diminished)
Melody -melodic ideas are strongly related throughout the whole piece -shorter phrases than Renaissance -bigger contour of line than Renaissance -very decorated music -There is some room to improvise. -Not modal. It is major and minor.
Rhythm -more difficult than Renaissance -more 16th and 32nd notes -tempo changes -less syncopated than Renaissance
Composers -Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) -Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643) -Heinrich Schutz (1585-1672) -Archangelo Corelli (1653-1713) -Henry Purcell (1659-1695) -Francois Couperin (1668-1733) -Antonio Vivaldi (1678-1741) -Georg Philipp Telemann (1681-1767) -Jean Phillipe Rameau (1683-1764) - Realized the formation of triads -George Frederic Handel (1685-1759) -Domenico Scarlatti (1685-1757)
Miscellaneous -Bach dies in 1750 -Around 1725, most people moved on to the next time period. -Most of the music before this was written from chant. -In Baroque, the chant and flowing line was broken. -notation is almost standardized -they had triplets -dynamics were written on music
History of Music
Classical Period
1750-1800 A.D.
The word Classical has strong connotations, conjuring up the art and
philosophy of Ancient Greece and Rome along with their ideals of
balance, proportion and disciplined expression. The late Baroque style
was polyphonically complex and melodically ornate. The composers of
the early Classical period changed direction, writing music that was much
simpler in texture. It is in some ways ironic that two of J.S. Bach's
children, Carl Philipp Emanuel (C.P.E.) and Johann Christian (J.C.), were
among the leaders of this new artistic movement. Their father had been
the greatest master of the high Baroque style, and it was his children who
made that style obsolete.
Homophony--music in which melody and accompaniment are
distinct--dominated the Classical style, and new forms of composition
were developed to accommodate the transformation. Sonata form is by
far the most important of these forms, and one that continued to evolve
throughout the Classical period. Although Baroque composers also wrote
pieces called sonatas, the Classical sonata was quite different.
The essence of the Classical sonata is conflict. A highly simplified example
of such a conflict might be between two themes of contrasting character.
This contrast would be intensified during the course of the sonata, then
finally resolved. In some ways, there is a resemblance to the skeleton of a
play: we meet characters, a conflict is developed and finally a resolution
reached. Sonata form allowed composers to give pure instrumental music
a recognizable dramatic shape. Every major instrumental form of the
Classical era, including the string quartet, symphony and concerto was
molded on the dramatic structure of the sonata.
One of the most important developments of the Classical period is the
growth of the public concert. Although the aristocracy would continue to
play a significant role in musical life, it was now possible for composers to
survive without being the employee of one person or family. This also
meant that concerts were no longer limited to palace drawing rooms.
Composers started organizing concerts featuring their own music, and
often attracted large audiences. The increasing popularity of the public
concert had a strong impact on the growth of the orchestra. Although
chamber music and solo works were played in the home or other intimate
settings, orchestral concerts seemed to be naturally designed for big
public spaces. As a result, symphonic music (including opera and
oratorio) became more extroverted in character. Composers gradually
expanded the size of the orchestra to accommodate this expanded
musical vision.
Sound -Orchestra that has about 50 people -Trombone is introduced -Piano replaces Lute, Harpsichord, and Organ -Opera becomes popular -Opera is forerunner to Musicals
Texture -very clear -mostly homophonic -melody & accompaniment -Alberti Bass -Alberti did this -outlines triads 1-5-3-5-1-5-3-5-1-5-3-5 etc.
Harmony -Tonal System -major minor stuff -Slow harmonic rhythm (harmony moves slow) -All triads and simple 7ths (Same as Baroque) -Progression is IV-V-I. -This replaces ii-V-I
Melody -is more lyrical than Baroque -has smooth contour -four bar and eight bar phrases become popular -question and answer is used in melody
Rhythm -simple rhythm -very symmetric -some simple syncopation (not as much as Renaissance) -Tempo changes used a lot -Silence is used as an effect
Composer
Carl Philipp Emanuel (C.P.E.) Bach (1714-1788) Christoph Willibald Gluck (1714-1787) Johann Christian (J.C.) Bach (1735-1782) Franz Josef Haydn (1732-1809) Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart(1756-1791) Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) - Early years
History of Music
Romantic Period
1800-1900 A.D.
Just as the word "Classical"conjures up certain images, Romantic is at
least as evocative. Whether we thinkof those romance novels with the
tawdry covers, or the paintings ofDelacroix, Romanticism implies fantasy,
spontaneity and sensuality.
The Classicalperiod focused on structuralclarity and emotional restraint.
Classical music was expressive, butnot so passionate that it could
overwhelm a work's equilibrium. Beethovenwho was in some ways
responsible for igniting the flameof romanticism, always struggled
(sometimes unsuccessfully) to maintainthat balance. Many composers of
the Romantic period followed Beethoven'smodel and found their own
balance between emotional intensityand Classicalform. Others reveled in
the new atmosphere of artistic freedomand created music whose
structurewas designed to support its emotional surges. Musical
story-telling became important, andnot just in opera,but in "pure"
instrumentalmusic as well. The tone-poem is a particularly Romantic
invention, as it was an orchestralwork whose structurewas entirely
dependent on the scene being depictedor the story being told.
Colorwas another important feature of Romantic music. New instruments
were added to the orchestraand composersexperimented with ways to
get new sounds from existing instruments.A large palette of musical
colorswas necessary to depict the exotic scenes that became so popular.
Exoticism was something of a 19thcentury obsession. Russian composers
wrote music depicting Spanish landscapes(Nicolai Rimsky-Korsakov's
Capriccio Espagnol, for example) andGerman composers wrote music
depicting Scottish landscapes (Mendelssohn'sScottish Symphony).
Operaswere set in exotic locales (Verdi's Aïda is set in Ancient Egypt).
In addition to seeking out the sightsand sounds of other places,
composersbegan exploring the music of their native countries.
Nationalism became a driving forcein the late Romantic period and
composers wanted their music to expresstheir cultural identity. This
desire was particularly intense inRussia and Eastern Europe, where
elementsof folk music were incorporated into symphonies, tone-poems
and other "Classical"forms.
The Romantic period was the heydayof the virtuoso. Exceptionally gifted
performers--and particularly pianists,violinists, and singers--became
enormously popular. Liszt, the greatHungarian pianist/composer,
reportedly played with such passionand intensity that women in the
audience would faint. Since, likeLiszt, most composers were also
virtuoso performers, it was inevitablethat the music they wrote would be
extremely challenging to play.
The Romantic period witnessed an unprecedentedglorification of the
artist--whether musician, poet orpainter--that has had a powerful impact
on our own culture.
Sound-huge, full orchestra -100 people -composersadded groups to the orchestra -off stage Brass -Organ-vibrato becomes standard -before, vibrato was decoration-trombones and tubas becomeimportant-a lot more percussion-color becomes a big issue -flugelhorn -Muted Trumpets-lots of parts split -divisi.
Texture-mainly homophonic-really thick -lots of sound (Pines of Rome is an example)-lots of changes in texture -more drastic and frequent-very emotional
Harmony-All 7ths, 9ths, 11ths,and 13ths were used in this period-Neopolitan-Anything that stacks-Extremely complex harmonies-Key changes are all over-Lack of key center in lateRomantic -lots of accidentals-Chord for Chord sake -don’t care about function -if composer likes a chord,he throws it in
Melody-melody evolves from harmony-phrases either really longor really short-increased chromaticism-whole tone scale-increased range
Rhythm-more complicated-polyrhythms -2 different rhythms going on at the same time, like hemiola-polymeter-different instrumentshave different meters-rhythms are more irregular -not even
InportantComposersLudwig van Beethoven-GriegAnton Bruckner-SibeliusRichard Wagner-GunoFranz SchubertHector Berlioz (1803-1869)-Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1874) SongWithout Words "A May Breeze" - Felix Mendelssohn Frederic Chopin GrandePolonaise brillante op. 22 Robert SchumannFranz Liszt (1811-1886)Giuseppe VerdiJohannes Brahms O Tod,wie bitter bist du - Brahms HungarianDance No. 1 - Johannes BrahmsModest Mussorgsky (1839-1881)Peter TchaikovskySir Edward William ElgarGustav Mahler- Early years Miscellaneous-being different becomesa goal-every composer wanted theirown style-Music business becomesan issue -publishing -making instruments-Schmulz- dramatic beyondbelief-very extreme -dynamics -articulations-It is now possible to makea living as a performer. (Franz Lizst started this)
History of Music
Contemporary Period
1900-Present
Why do musical styles change? The "evolution" of music is at least partly
shaped by the influence one composer has on another. These influences
are not always positive, however. Sometimes composers react against
the music of their recent past (even though they might admire it) and move
in what seems to be the opposite direction. For example, the simplified
style of the early Classical period was almost certainly a reaction to the
extreme intricacies of the late Baroque.
The late Romantic period featured its own extremes: sprawling
symphonies and tone-poems overflowing with music that seemed to
stretch harmony and melody to their limits. It is certainly possible to view
some early 20th century music as an extension of the late Romantic style,
but a great deal of it can also be interpreted as a reaction against that
style.
20th century music is a series of "isms" and "neo-isms." The primal energy
of Stravinsky's Rite of Spring has been called neo-Primitivism. The
intensely emotional tone of Schönberg's early music has been labeled
Expressionism. The return to clearly structured forms and textures has
been dubbed neo-Classicism. These terms have been employed in an
attempt to organize the diversity of styles running through the 20th
century.
Nationalism continued to be a strong musical influence in the first half of
the century. The study of folk songs enriched the music of numerous
composers, such as Ralph Vaughan Williams (England), Bela Bartok
(Hungary), Heitor Villa Lobos (Brazil) and Aaron Copland (USA). Jazz
and popular musical styles have also been tremendously influential on
"classical" composers from both the United States and Europe.
Technology has played a increasingly important role in the development of
20th century music. Composers have used recording tape as a
compositional tool (such as Steve Reich's Violin Phase). Electronically
generated sounds have been used both on their own and in combination
with traditional instruments. More recently, computer technology has been
used in a variety of ways, including manipulating the performance of
instruments in real time.
Sound -totally experimental -now there’s electronic instruments all over
Texture -Bigger extremes than Romantic -Really thick or Really thin
Harmony -sometimes there are totally new harmonic systems -lots of chromaticism -there are polytriads- 2 different triads stacked on top of each other -polytonality- different instruments are in different keys at the same time -atonal- no tonal center
Melody -A lot of it has no melody -if there is a melody, the intervals are insanely large -the phrases are either really short, or really long -disjumped- off center or fragmented
Rhythm -becomes extremely complex -very irregular -usually, there are old numbered meters -Additive Rhythms- lack of meter
Composers David Ott Ottorino Respighi Berese Anton Bruckner Barter John Williams Leos Janácek (1854-1928) Claude Debussy Romance - Debussy Richard Strauss Voices of Spring Waltz op. 410 (7 '32) Morgen - R. Strauss (with Kaaren Erickson, soprano) Carl Nielsen (1865-1931) Jan Sibelius (1865-1957) Arnold Schoenberg Ralph Vaughan Williams (1872-1958) Maurice Ravel (1875-1937) La Vallee des Cloches - Ravel Béla Bartók (1881-1945) Igor Stravinsky Anton von Webern (1883-1945) Alban Berg (1885-1945) Sergei Prokofiev (1891-1953) Paul Hindemith (1895-1963) George Gershwin (1898-1937) Kurt Weill (1900-1950) Aaron Copland (1900-1990) Dmitri Shostakovich (1906-1975) Olivier Messiaen (1908-1992) John Cage (1912-1992) Benjamin Britten (1913-1976) Pierre Boulez Luciano Berio (b. 1925) Philip Glass (b. 1937)
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Carnatic music
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Carnatic music, also known as karṇāṭaka sangītam is one of the two styles of Indian classical music, the other being Hindustani music. The present form of Carnatic music is based on historical developments that can be traced to the 15th - 16th centuries CE and thereafter. From the several epigraphical inscriptional evidences and other ancient works[1], the history of classical musical traditions can be traced back about 2500 years.
Carnatic music is completely melodic, with improvised variations. The main emphasis is on vocal music; most compositions are written to be sung, and even when played on instruments, they are meant to be performed in a singing style (known as gāyaki).[]
Like Hindustani music, Carnatic music rests on two main elements: rāga, the modes or melodic formulæ, and tāḷa, the rhythmic cycles.[3]
[edit] Origins and history
Like all art forms in Indian culture, Carnatic Music is believed to have a divine origin - it is believed to have originated from the Gods. However, it is also generally accepted that the natural origins of music were an important factor in the development of Carnatic music. [4] Ancient treatises describe the connection of the origin of swaras to the sounds of animals and birds, and man’s keen sense of observation and perception that tried simulating these sounds - after hearing and distinguishing between the different sounds that emanated from bamboo reed when air passes through its hollows, man designed the first flute. In this way, music is venerated as an aspect of the supreme (nāda brāhmam)[5]. Folk music is also said to have been a natural origin of Carnatic music, with many folk tunes corresponding to certain Carnatic ragas (discussed later).[4]
The Vedas are generally accepted as the main probable source of Indian music. The Sama Veda is said to have laid the foundation for Indian music, and consists mainly of hymns of Rigveda, set to musical tunes which would be sung using three to seven musical notes during Vedic sacrifices.[4] The Yajur-Veda, which mainly consists of sacrificial formulae, mentions the veena as an accompaniment to vocal recitations during the sacrifices.[6]
References to Indian classical music are made in many ancient religious texts, including epics like the Ramayana and Mahabharata. The Yajnavalkya Smriti mentions "Veena vadhana tathvangna sruti, jathi, visartha talanjaaprayasena moksha margam niyachathi" ("The one who is well versed in veena, one who has the knowledge of srutis and one who is adept in tala, attains salvation without doubt.")[7] Carnatic music is based on music concepts mentioned in Bharata's Natya Shastra.[8]. The Natya Shastra mentions many musical concepts (including swara and tala) that continue to be relevant to Carnatic music today.[4]
According to some scholars,[4] Carnatic music shares certain classical music concepts with ancient Tamil music. The concept of Pann is related to Ragas used in Carnatic music.[9]. The rhythmic meters found in several musical forms (such as the Tiruppugazh) and other ancient literature, resemble the talas that are in use today[10][11]
Both Carnatic and Hindustani music shared a common history. Since the late 12th and early 13th centuries, as a result of the increasing Persian influence (and as a result of the Islamic conquest) in North India, Hindustani Music started evolving as a separate genre, while Carnatic music was relatively unaffected by these Arabic and Iranian influences.[12] In Carnatic Music (which was based in South India), the pan-Indian bhakti movement laid a substantial basis as far as the use of religious themes are concerned, while major developments post 13th century also contributed to its divergence from Hindustani music.[13]
Carnatic music saw renewed growth during the Vijayanagar Empire by the Kannada Haridasa movement of Vyasaraja, Purandara Dasa, Kanakadasa and others.[14] Purandara Dasa who is known as the Sangeeta Pitamaha (the grandfather of Carnatic music) laid out the fundamental tenets and framework for teaching Carnatic music.[15][4]. Venkatamakhin is credited with the classification of ragas in the Melakarta System and wrote his most important work; Chaturdandi Prakasika (c.1635 CE) in Sanskrit. Govindacharya expanded the Melakarta Scheme into the Sampoorna raga system, which is the system in common use today.
Even though the earlier writers Matanga, Sarangadeva and others also were from Karnataka, the music tradition was formally named Karnataka Sangeetha for the first time only in the 13th Century when the Vijayanagara empire was founded.[16]
A unique development in the art of instrumental carnatic music took shape under the patronage of the kings of the Kingdom of Mysore in the 18th through 20th centuries. The composers used to play their compositions on instruments such as the veena, rudra veena, violin, tambura, ghata, flute, mridangam, nagaswara, swarabhat. Some instruments such as harmonium, sitar and jaltarang, though uncommon to the southern region came into use and the English influence popularised the saxophone and piano. Even royalty of this dynasty were noted composers and proficient in playing musical instruments, solo or in concert with others.[17] Some famous instrumentalists were Veena Sheshanna(1852-1926)[18], Veena Subbanna (1861-1939),[19] T. Chowdiah[20]and others.
[edit] Nature of Carnatic music
Carnatic music is practised and presented today by musicians in concerts or recordings, either vocally or through instruments. Carnatic music itself developed around musical works or compositions of phenomenal composers (see below).
[edit] Compositions
In contrast to Hindustani Music of the northern part of India, Carnatic music is taught and learned through compositions, which encode many intricate musical details, also providing scope for free improvization. Nearly every rendition of a Carnatic music composition is different and unique as it embodies elements of the composers vision, as well as the musician's interpretation.
A Carnatic composition really has two elements, one being the musical element, the other being what is conveyed in the composition. It is probably because of this fact that most Carnatic music compositions are composed for singing. In addition to the rich musical experience, each composition brings out the knowledge and personality of the composer, and hence the words are as important as the musical element itself. This poses a special challenge for the musicians because rendering this music does not involve just playing or singing the correct musical notes; the musicians are expected to understand what was conveyed by the composer in various languages, and sing musical phrases that act to create the effect that was intended by the composer in his/her composition.
There are many types/forms of compositions. Geethams and Swarajatis (which have their own peculiar composition structures) are principally meant to serve as basic learning exercises, and while there are many other types/forms of compositions (including Padam, Javali and Thillana), the most common forms are the Varnam, and most importantly, the Kriti (or Keerthanam), which are discussed below.
[edit] Varnam
Main article: Varnam
This is a special item which highlights everything important about a raga; not just the scale, but also which notes to stress, how to approach a certain note, classical and characteristic phrases, etc. Though there are a few different types of varnams, in essence, they all have a pallavi, an anupallavi, muktayi swaras, a charana, and chittaswaras. They are sung in multiple speeds, and are very good for practice. In concerts, varnams are often sung at the beginning as they are fast and grab the audience's attention.[21]
[edit] Kriti
Main article: Kriti
Carnatic songs (kritis) are varied in structure and style, but generally consist of three units:
1. Pallavi. This is the equivalent of a refrain in Western music. One or two lines.
2. Anupallavi. The second verse. Also two lines.
3. Charana. The final (and longest) verse that wraps up the song. The Charanam usually borrows patterns from the Anupallavi. There can be multiple charanas.
This kind of song is called a keerthanam or a Kriti. There are other possible structures for a Kriti, which may in addition include swara passages named chittaswara. Chittaswara consists only of notes, and has no words. Still others, have a verse at the end of the charana, called the madhyamakāla. It is sung immediately after the charana, but at double speed.
[edit] Prominent composers
Purandara Dasa
There are many composers in Carnatic music.
See also: List of Carnatic composers
Purandara Dasa (1480 - 1564) is known as the father (Pitamaha) of Carnatic music due to his pioneering contributions to Carnatic music. Purandara Dasa is renowned for formulating the basic lessons of Carnatic music. He structured graded exercises known as Swaravalis and Alankaras, and at the same time, introduced the Raga Mayamalavagowla as the first scale to be learnt by beginners. He also composed Gitas (simple songs) for novice students. Although only a fraction of his other compositions still exist, he is said to have composed around 475,000 compositions in total.[22]
The contemporaries Tyagaraja (1759? - 1847), Muthuswami Dikshitar, (1776 - 1827) and Syama Sastri, (1762 - 1827) are regarded as the Trinity of Carnatic music due to the quality of Syama Sastri's compositions, the varieties of compositions of Muthuswami Dikshitar and Tyagaraja's prolific output in composing kritis.[23] [24]
Prominent composers prior to the Trinity of Carnatic music include Annamacharya, Narayana Theertha, Bhadrachala Ramadas, Sadasiva Brahmendra and Oottukkadu Venkata Kavi. Other prominent composers are Swathi Thirunal, Gopalakrishna Bharathi, Neelakanta Sivan, Patnam Subramania Iyer, Mysore Vasudevachar, Koteeswara Iyer, Muthiah Bhagavathar, Subramania Bharathiyar and Papanasam Sivan. The compositions of these composers are rendered frequently by prominent artists of today.
Papanasam Sivan
Composers of Carnatic music were often inspired by religious devotion and were usually scholars proficient in one or more of the following languages Kannada, Sanskrit, Tamil, Malayalam and Telugu. They usually included a signature, called a mudra, in their compositions. For example, all songs by Tyagaraja (who composed in Telugu) have the word Thyagaraja in them, all songs by Muthuswami Dikshitar (who composed in Sanskrit) have the words Guruguha in them, songs by Syama Sastri (who composed in Telugu) have the words Syama Krishna in them while Purandaradasa, who composed in Kannada, used the signature Purandara Vittala. Gopalakrishna Bharathi used the signature Gopalakrishnan and composed in Tamil. Papanasam Sivan, who has been hailed as the Tamil Thyagaraja of Carnatic music[25], also composed in this language, as well as Sanskrit[26], and used the signature Ramadasan.
[edit] Important elements of Carnatic music
[edit] Śruti
Main article: Śruti (music)
Śruti commonly refers to musical pitch.[27] It is the approximate equivalent of a tonic (or less precisely a key) in Western music; it is the note from which all the others are derived. It is also used in the sense of graded pitches in an octave. While there are an infinite number of sounds falling within a scale (or raga) in Carnatic music, the number that can be distinguished by auditory perception is twenty-two (although over the years, several of them have converged). In this sense, while shruti is determined by auditory perception, it is also an expression in the listener's mind.[28]
[edit] Swara
Main article: Swara
Swara refers to a type of musical sound that is a single note, which defines a relative (higher or lower) position of a note, rather than a defined frequency.[29] Swaras also refer to the solfege of Carnatic music, which consist of seven notes, "sa-ri-ga-ma-pa-da-ni" (compare with the Hindustani sargam: sa-re-ga-ma-pa-dha-ni or Western do-re-mi-fa-so-la-ti). These names are abbreviations of the longer names shadja, rishabha, gandhara. madhyama, panchama, dhaivata and nishada. Unlike other music systems, every member of the solfege (called a swara) has three variants. The exceptions are the drone notes, shadja and panchama (also known as the tonic and the dominant), which have only one form; and madhyama (the subdominant), which has two forms. A 7th century stone inscription in Kudumiyan Malai[30] in Tamil Nadu shows vowel changes to solfege symbols with ra, ri, ru etc. to denote the higher quarter-tones. In one scale, or ragam, there is usually only one variant of each note present. The exceptions exist in "light" ragas, in which, for artistic effect, there may be two, one ascending (in the arohanam) and another descending (in the avarohanam).
[edit] Raga system
Main article: Raga
A raga in Carnatic music prescribes a set of rules for building a melody - very similar to the Western concept of mode.[31] It specifies rules for movements up (aarohanam) and down (avarohanam), the scale of which notes should figure more and which notes should be used more sparingly, which notes may be sung with gamaka, which phrases should be used, phrases should be avoided, and so on.
In Carnatic music, the sampoorna ragas (those with all seven notes in their scales) are classified into a system called the melakarta, which groups them according to the kinds of notes that they have. There are seventy-two melakarta ragas, thirty six of whose madhyama (subdominant) is sadharana (perfect fourth from the tonic), the remaining thirty-six of whose madhyama (subdominant) is prati (an augmented fourth from the tonic). The ragas are grouped into sets of six, called chakras ("wheels", though actually segments in the conventional representation) grouped according to the supertonic and mediant scale degrees. There is a system known as the 'Katapayadi sankhya to determine the names of Melakarta Ragas.
Ragas may be divided into two classes: janaka ragas (i.e melakarta or parent ragas) and janyaragas (descendant ragas of a particular janaka raga). Janya ragas are subclassified into various categories themselves.
There are potentially hundreds and thousands of ragas, with over 5000 that have been used.[32]
[edit] Tala system
Main article: tala (music)
Tala refers to the beat set for a particular composition (a measure of time). Talas have cycles of a defined number of beats and rarely change within a song. They have specific components, which in combinations can give rise to the variety to exist (over 108), allowing different compositions to have different rhythms.[33]
Carnatic music singers usually keep the beat by moving their hands up and down in specified patterns, and using their fingers simultaneously to keep time. Tala is formed with three basic parts (called angas) which are laghu, dhrtam, and anudhrtam, though complex talas may have other parts like plutam, guru and kaakapaadam. There are seven basic tala groups which can be formed from the laghu, dhrtam, and anudhrtam:
Dhruva tala
Matya tala
Rupaka tala
Jhampa tala
Triputa tala
Ata tala
Eka tala
A laghu has five variants (called jaathis) based on the counting pattern. Five jaathis times seven tala groups gives thirty-five basic talas, although use of other angas results in a total of 108 talas.
[edit] Improvisation
There are four main types of improvisation in Carnatic music, but in every type, adhering to the scale and phrases of the raga is required.
[edit] Raga Alapana
Main article: Alapana
This is the exposition of the ragam of the song that is being planned to be performed. A performer will explore the ragam first by singing lower octaves then moving up to higher ones and touching various aspects of the ragam while giving a hint of the song to be performed. It is a slow improvisation with no rhythm.[34]
Theoretically, this ought to be the easiest type of improvisation, since the rules are so few, but in fact, it takes much skill to sing a pleasing, comprehensive (in the sense of giving a "feel for the ragam") and, most importantly, original ragam.
[edit] Niraval
Main article: Niraval
This is usually performed by the more advanced concert artists and consists of singing one or two lines of a song repeatedly, but with improvised elaborations.
[edit] Kalpanaswaram
Main article: Kalpanaswaram
The most elementary type of improvisation, usually taught before any other form of improvisation. It consists of singing a pattern of notes which finishes on the beat and the note just before the beat and the note on which the song starts. The swara pattern should adhere to the original raga's swara pattern, which is called as aarohanam-avarohanam
[edit] Thanam
This form of improvisation was originally developed for the veena and consists of expanding the raga with syllables like tha, nam, thom, aa, nom, na, etc
[edit] Ragam Thanam Pallavi
Main article: Ragam Thanam Pallavi
This is a composite form of improvisation. As the name suggests, it consists of Raga Alapana, Thanam, and a pallavi line. The pallavi line is sung twice, and Niraval follows. After Niraval, the pallavi line is sung again, twice in normal speed, then sung once at half the speed, then twice at regular speed, then four times at twice the speed. Kalpanaswarams follow.
[edit] Learning Carnatic music
Carnatic music is traditionally taught according to the system formulated by Purandara Dasa. This involves swaravalis (graded exercises), alankaras (exercises based on the seven talas), Geethams or simple songs, and Swarajatis. After the student has reached a certain standard, Varnams are taught, and later, the student learns Kritis. It typically takes several years of learning before a student is adept enough to perform at a concert.
The learning texts and exercises are more or less uniform across all the South Indian states. The learning structure is arranged in the increasing order of the complexity. The lessons start with the learning of the sarali varisai (solfege set to a particular raga).
Carnatic music was traditionally taught in the gurukula system, where the student lived with and learnt the art from his guru (perceptor). From the late 20th century onwards, with changes in lifestyles and need for young music aspirants to simultaneously manoeuvre a parallel academic career, this system has found few takers.
Musicians often take great pride in letting people know about their Guru Parampara, or the hierarchy of disciples from some prominent ancient musician or composer, to which they belong. People whose disciple-hierarchies are often referred to are Thyagaraja, Muthuswami Dikshitar, Syama Sastri, Swathi Thirunal, Papanasam Sivan among others.
In modern times, it is often common for students to visit their gurus daily or weekly to learn music. Though new technology has made learning easier with the availability of quick-learn media such as learning exercises recorded on audio cassettes and CDs, these are discouraged by most gurus who emphasize that face-to-face learning is best for students.
[edit] Notations
Notation is not a new concept in Indian music. However, Carnatic music continued to be transmitted orally for centuries without being written down. The disadvantage with this system was that if one wanted to learn about a Kriti composed, for example, by Purandara Dasa, it involved the difficult task of finding a person from Purandara Dasa's lineage of students.
Written notation of Carnatic music was revived in the late 17th century and early 18th century, which coincided with rule of Shahaji II in Tanjore. Copies of Shahaji's musical manuscripts are still available at the Saraswathi Mahal Library in Tanjore and they give us an idea of the music and its form. They contain snippets of solfege to be used when performing the mentioned ragas.
[edit] Melody
Unlike Western music, Carnatic music is notated almost exclusively in tonic solfa notation using either a Roman or Indic script to represent the solfa names. Past attempts to use the staff notation have mostly failed. Indian music makes use of hundreds of ragas, many more than the church modes in Western music. It becomes difficult to write Carnatic music using the staff notation without the use of too many accidentals. Furthermore, the staff notation requires that the song be played in a certain key. The notions of key and absolute pitch are deeply rooted in Western music, whereas the Carnatic notation does not specify the key and prefers to use scale degrees (relative pitch) to denote notes. The singer is free to choose actual pitch of the tonic note. In the more precise forms of Carnatic notation, there are symbols placed above the notes indicating how the notes should be played or sung; however, informally this practice is not followed.
To show the length of a note, several devices are used. If the duration of note is to be doubled, the letter is either capitalized (if using Roman script) or lengthened by a diacritic (in Indian languages). For a duration of three, the letter is capitalized (or diacriticized) and followed by a comma. For a length of four, the letter is capitalized (or diacriticized) and then followed by a semicolon. In this way any duration can be indicated using a series of semicolons and commas.
However, a simpler notation has evolved which does not use semicolons and capitalization, but rather indicates all extensions of notes using a corresponding number of commas. Thus, Sā quadrupled in length would be denoted as "S,,,".
[edit] Rhythm
The notation is divided into columns, depending on the structure of the tāḷaṃ. The division between a laghu and a dhrutam is indicated by a ।, called a ḍaṇḍā, and so is the division between two dhrutams or a dhrutam and an anudhrutam. The end of a cycle is marked by a ॥, called a double ḍaṇḍā, and looks like a caesura.
[edit] Concerts
Carnatic music concerts are usually performed by a small ensemble of musicians who sit on a slightly elevated stage. Carnatic music concerts can be vocal recitals, accompanied by supporting instruments, or purely instrumental concerts, but irrespective of whether it is a vocal or purely instrumental concert, what is featured in a typical concert are compositions which form the core of this music. The lead-musician must also choose a signature octave based on his/her (vocal) range of comfort. However, it is expected that a musician maintains that same pitch once it is selected, and so to help all the performers maintain the selected pitch, the tambura is the traditional drone instrument used in concerts. However, tamburas are increasingly being replaced by śruti boxes, and now more commonly, the "Electronic tambura"
In a vocal recital, a concert team may have one or more vocalists, accompanied by instrumentalists. Other instruments such as the veena and/or flute can be found to occasionally accompany a lead vocalist, but usually a vocalist is supported by a violin player (who sits on his/her left), and a few percussion players including at least a mridangam (who usually sits on the other side of the vocalist, facing the instrumentalist). Other percussion instruments that are also used include the ghatam, kanjira and morsing, which also accompany the main percussion instrument and play almost in a contrapuntal fashion along with the beats. The objective of the accompanying instruments is far more than following the melody and keeping the beats. The accompaniments form an integral part of every composition presented, and they closely follow and augment the melodic phrases outlines by the lead singer. The vocalist and the violinist take turns while elaborating or while exhibiting creativity in sections like raga, niraval and kalpanaswaram. Unlike Hindustani music concerts, where an accompanying tabla player can keep beats without following the musical phrases at times, in carnatic music, the accompaniments have to know follow intricacies of the composition since there are percussion elements such as eduppu, in several compositions. Some of the best concerts feature a good bit of interaction with the lead musicians and the accompaniments exchanging notes, and accompanying musicians predicting the lead singer musical phrases.
edit] Content
A contemporary Carnatic concert ((called a kutcheri) usually lasts about three hours, and usually comprises a number of varied compositions. Carnatic songs are composed in a particular raga, which means that they do not deviate from the notes in the raga. Each composition is set with specific notes and beats, but performers improvise extensively. Improvisation occurs in the melody of the composition as well as in using the notes to expound the beauty of the raga.
Concerts usually begin with a varnam or an invocatory item which will act as the opening piece. The varnam is composed with an emphasis on swaras of the raga, but will also have lyrics, the saahityam. It is lively and fast to get the audience's attention. An invocatory item, may alternatively, follow the varnam.
After the varnam and/or invocatory item, the artist sings longer compositions called kirtanas (commonly referred to as kritis). Each kriti sticks to one specific raga, although some are composed with more than one ragas; these are known as ragamalika (a garland of ragas).
After singing the opening kriti, usually, the performer sings the kalpanaswaram of the raga to the beat. The performer must improvise a string of swaras in any octave according to the rules of the raga and return to beginning of the cycle of beats smoothly, joining the swaras with a phrase selected from the kriti. The violin performs these alternately with the main performer. In very long strings of swara, the performers must calculate their notes accurately to ensure that they stick to the raga, have no awkward pauses and lapses in the beat of the song, and create a complex pattern of notes that an experienced audience can follow.
Performers then begin the main compositions with a section called raga alapana exploring the raga. In this, they use the sounds aa, ri, na, ta, etc. instead of swaras to slowly elaborate the notes and flow of the raga. This begins slowly and builds to a crescendo, and finally establishes a complicated exposition of the raga that shows the performer's skill. All of this is done without any rhythmic accompaniment, or beat. Then the melodic accompaniment (violin or veena), expounds the raga. Experienced listeners can identify many ragas after they hear just a few notes. With the raga thus established, the song begins, usually with lyrics. In this, the accompaniment (usually violin, sometimes veena) performs along with the main performer and the percussion (such as a mridangam). In the next stage of the song, they may sing niraval or kalpanaswaram again.
In most concerts, the main item will at least have a section at the end of the item, for the percussion to perform solo (called the tani avartanam). The percussion performers perform complex patterns of rhythm and display their skill. If multiple percussion instruments are employed, they engage in a rhythmic dialogue until the main performer picks up the melody once again. Some experienced artists may follow the main piece with a ragam thanam pallavi mid-concert, if they do not use it as the main item.
Following the main composition, the concert continues with shorter and lighter songs. Some of the types of songs performed towards the end of the concerts are tillanas & thukkadas - bits of popular kritis or compositions requested by the audience. Every concert that is the last of the day ends with a mangalam, a thankful prayer and conclusion to the musical event.
[edit] Audience
The audience of a typical concert has a reasonable understanding of Carnatic music. It is also typical to see the audience tapping out the tala in sync with the artist's performance. As and when the artist exhibits creativity, the audience acknowledge it by clapping their hands. With experienced artists, towards the middle of the concert, requests start flowing in. The artist usually plays the request and it helps in exhibiting the artist's broad knowledge of the several thousand kritis that are in existence.
[edit] Modern concerts
Every December, the city of Chennai in India has its six week-long Music Season, which has been described as the world's largest cultural event.[35] The Music Season was started in 1927, to mark the opening of the Madras Music Academy. It used to be a traditional month-long Carnatic music festival, but since then it has also diversified into dance and drama, as well as non-Carnatic art forms.
See also: Madras Music Season
[edit] Prominent modern artists
[edit] Vocalists
[edit] Past Vocalists
Popularly referred to as the female trinity of the Carnatic music,[36] M. L. Vasanthakumari, M. S. Subbulakshmi and D. K. Pattammal, together with the leading male vocalists Muthiah Bhagavathar, Mysore Vasudevachar, Ariyakudi Ramanuja Iyengar, Musiri Subramania Iyer, Maharajapuram Viswanatha Iyer, Semmangudi Srinivasa Iyer, Chembai Vaidyanatha Bhagavathar, G. N. Balasubramaniam and Madurai Mani Iyer created a golden era for Carnatic music during the mid to late twentieth century. The other popular prominent performers during this era were Alathur Venkatesa Iyer, M.D.Ramanathan, M. Balamuralikrishna, S.Ramanathan, K. V. Narayanaswamy, Tanjore S. Kalyanaraman, Maharajapuram Santhanam, D. K. Jayaraman, Nedunuri Krishnamoorthy, T. K. Rangachari, Sirkazhi Govindarajan, Thanjavur Sankara Iyer, P. S. Narayanaswamy, Madurai Somu and Jon. B. Higgins.
[edit] Past-Present Vocalists
R. K. Srikantan, R. Vedavalli, T. V. Sankaranarayanan and K. J. Yesudas, along with Nedunuri Krishnamoorthy and M. Balamuralikrishna, are the only musicians that are still alive, and from time-to-time, still perform in public concerts.
While D. K. Pattammal no longer performs in public concerts, she is the only survivor of those who helped create the Golden era for Carnatic music.
T. N. Seshagopalan and Neyveli Santhanagopalan remain popular, even today.
[edit] Current Vocalists
Popular vocalists of today include Nithyashree Mahadevan, Sudha Ragunathan, P. Unni Krishnan, Priya Sisters, S. Sowmya, Sanjay Subrahmanyan, Bombay Jayashri Ramnath, Aruna Sairam, O. S. Arun, O. S. Thyagarajan, T. M. Krishna, Malladi Brothers - Sriram Prasad & Ravikumar, Ranjani & Gayatri, Sikkil C. Gurucharan, Vishakha Hari and Sreevalsan J. Menon.
[edit] Instrumentalists
[edit] Past Instrumentalists
T. Chowdiah, Rajamanikkam Pillai, Papa Venkataramiah, Dwaram Venkataswamy Naidu among others, excelled in violin, while Palghat Mani Iyer, Palani Subramaniam Pillai and C.S.Murugabhoopathy redefined the role of mridangam in concerts in the recent past. T.H.Vinayakram, is a very famous ghatam players. T.R. Mahalingam, Thyagarajan, and Shashank Subramaniam are famous flute players. Some of the well known veena players include S. Balachander, Veena Dhanammal, Doraiswamy Iyengar, K.S. Narayanaswamy and Emani Sankara Sastri.
[edit] Past-Present Instrumentalists
T.N.Krishnan, M.S.Gopalakrishnan, Lalgudi G. Jayaraman, Kunnakudi Vaidyanathan, Dr.Mysore Manjunath, Mysore Nagaraj and A. Kanyakumari are among the living violinists who still perform, while the mridhangists who fall under this category include Karaikkudi Mani, Umayalpuram K. Sivaraman, T. K. Murthy, Guruvayur Dorai, Mannargudi Easwaran, T.V.Gopalakrishnan, I. Sivakumar and J. Vaidhyanathan. T.H.Subhashchandran and N. Govindarajan are Ghatam players that fall under this category.
N. Ramani and Sikkil Sisters are the most well known flute players of today, while E. Gayathri, Kalpakam Swaminathan are known in the same way for playing the Veena. Kadri Gopalnath is similarly known for his Carnatic talents on the saxophone, while N. Ravikiran is known in the same way for playing several stringed instruments, most notably the Chitraveena/Gottuvadhyam.
[edit] Current Instrumentalists
Violinists of today include Ganesh and Kumaresh, Ranjani and Gayatri, Vittal Ramamurthy, Embar S. Kannan, Lalgudi GJR Krishnan, Lalgudi Vijayalakshmi and others..
Mridhangists of today include Thiruvarur Vaidyanathan and others.
Flute players of today include Mala Chandhrashekharan, R. Thyagarajan, R. Atul Kumar, S. Shashank, [T. Suresh]]. Veena players of today include Jayanthi Kumaresh.
Hindustani classical music
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Hindustani Classical Music is a North Indian classical music tradition that has been evolving from the 12th centuries AD onwards, in what is now northern India and Pakistan, and also Bangladesh, Nepal and Afghanistan. The tradition was born out of a cultural synthesis from several musical streams: the vedic chant tradition dating back to approx. one millenia BCE[1], the equally ancient Persian tradition of Musiqi-e assil, and also existant folk traditions prevalent in the region. The terms North Indian Classical Music or Shāstriya Sangeet are also occasionally used.
Carnatic classical music, prevalent in South India, diverged from what came to be known as Hindustani classical music around the 12th century. The central notions in both these systems is that of a melodic mode or raga, sung to a rhythmic cycle or tala. The tradition dates back to the ancient Samaveda, (lit. sāma=ritual chant), which deals with the norms for chanting of srutis or hymns such as the Rig Veda. These principles were refined in the Natyashastra by Bharata (2nd-3d c. CE) and the Dattilam (probably 3d-4th c. AD)[2]. In medieval times, many of the melodic systems were fused with ideas from Persian music, particularly through the influence of sufi composers like Amir Khusro, and later in the Moghul courts. Noted composers such as Tansen flourished, along with religious groups like the Vaishnavites. After the 16th century, the singing styles diversifed into different gharanas patronized in different princely courts. Around 1900, Pandit Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande consolidated the musical structures of Hindustani Classical music into a number of thaats. In the 20th century, Hindustani classical music has become popular across the world through the influence of artistes like Ravi Shankar, Ali Akbar Khan and many others.
Indian classical music has 7 basic notes (Sa Re Ga Ma Pa Dha Ni), with five interspersed half-notes, resulting in a 12-note scale. Unlike the 12-note scale in Western music, the base frequency of the scale is not fixed, and intertonal gaps (temper) may also vary; however with the gradual replacement of the sarangi by the harmonium, an equal tempered scale is increasingly used. The performance is set to a melodic pattern (raga or raag) characterized in part by specific ascent (Arohana) and descent (Avarohana sequences, which may not be identical. Other characteristics include King (Vadi) and Queen (Samvadi) notes and a unique note phrase (Pakad). In addition each raga has its natural register (Ambit) and glissando (Meend) rules, as well as features specific to different styles and compositions within the raga structure. Performances are usually marked by considerable improvision within these norms.
It is traditional for performers who have reached a distinguished level of achievement, to be awarded titles of respect; Hindus are usually referred to as Pandit and Muslims as Ustad. An interesting aspect of hindustani music going back to sufi times, is the tradition of religious neutrality: muslim ustads singing hindu bhajans, or the opposite, is quite common.
[edit] History
Music was first formalized in India in connection with preserving the sruti texts, primarily the four vedas, which are seen as apaurasheya (lit. un-created by man). Not only was the text important, but also the manner in which they had been enunciated by the immortals. Prosody and chanting were thus of great importance, and were ensrhined in the two vedangas (bodies of knowledge) called Shiksha (pronunciation, chants) and Chhandas (prosody); these remained a key part of the the brahminic educational system till modern times. The formal aspects of the chant are delineated in the Samaveda, with certain aspects, e.g. the relation of chanting to meditation, elaborated in the Chandogya Upanishad (ca. 8th c. BC). Priests involved in these ritual chants were called Samans and a number of ancient musical instruments such as conch (shankh), lute (veena), flute (bansuri), trumptets and horns were associated with this and latter practices of ritual singing.
[edit] Sanskritic Tradition
The Samaveda outlined the ritual chants for singing the verses of the Rig veda, particularly for offerings of Soma. proposed a tonal structure consisting of seven notes, which were named, in descending order, as Krusht, Pratham, Dwitiya, Tritiya, Chaturth, Mandra and Atiswār. These refer to the notes of a flute, which was the only fixed frequency instrument. This is why the second note is called pratham (lit. first, i.e. note when only first hole is closed).
Music is dealt with extensively in the Valmiki Ramayana; Narada is an accomplished musician, as is Ravana; Saraswati with her veena is the goddess of music. In the Mahabharata, music is more secular; the gandharvas are presented as spirits who are musical masters, and the gandharva style looks to music primarily for pleasure, accompanied by the soma rasa. In the Vishnudharmottara Purana, the Naga king Ashvatara asks to know the svaras from Saraswati.
The most important text on music in the ancient canon is Bharata's Natya Shastra, composed around the 3d c. CE. The Natya Shastra deals with the different modes of music, dance, and drama, and also the emotional responses (rasa) they are expected to evoke. The scale is described in terms of 22 micro-tones, which can be combined in clusters of 4, 3, or two to form an octave.
While the term raga is articulated in the Natya Shastra (where it's meaning is more literal, colour, as in the mood), it finds a clearer expression in what is called jati in the Dattilam, a text composed shortly after or around the same time as Natya Shastra. The Dattilam is focused on gandharva music, and discusses scales (swara), defining a tonal framework called grama in terms of 22 micro-tonal intervals (sruti[3]) comprising one ocave. It also discusses various arrangements of the notes (murchhana), the permutations and combinations of note-sequences (tanas), and alankara or elaboration. Dattilam categorizes melodic structure into 18 groups called jati, which are the fundamental melodic structures similar to the raga. The names of the jatis reflect regional origins, e.g. andhri, oudichya.
Music also finds mention in a number of texts from the Gupta period; Kalidasa mentions several kinds of veena (Parivadini, Vipanchi), as well as percussion instruments (Mridang), the flute (Vamshi) and conch (Shankha). Music also finds mention in Buddhist and Jaina texts from the earliest periods of the Christian era.
Narada's Sangita Makarandha treatise circa 1100 CE is the earliest text where rules similar to the current Hindustani classical music can be found. Narada actually names and classifies the system in its earlier form before the advent of changes as a result of Persian influences. Jayadeva's Gita Govinda from the 12th century was perhaps the earliest musical composition presently known sung in the classical tradition called Ashtapadi music.
In the 13th century, Sharngadeva composed the Sangita Ratnakara, which has names such as the turushka todi (Turkish todi), revealing an influx of ideas from the Islamic influx. This text is the last to be mentioned by both the Carnatic and the Hindustani traditions, and is often thought to date the divergence between the two.
[edit] Medieval Period: Persian influence
The advent of Islamic rule under the Delhi Sultanate and later the Mughal Empire over northern India caused considerable cultural interchange. Increasingly, musicians received patronage in the courts of the new rulers, who in their turn, started taking increasing interest in local music forms. The initial generations may have been rooted in a cultural traditions outside India, gradually, they adopted many aspects from their kingdoms which retained the traditional Hindu culture. This helped spur the fusion of Hindu and Muslim ideas to bring forth new forms of musical synthesis like qawwali and khayal.
The most influential musician from the Delhi Sultanate period was Amir Khusrau (1253-1325), sometimes called the father of Hindustani classical music[4]. A prolific composer in Persian, Turkish, Arabic, as well as Braj Bhasha, he is credited with systematizing many aspects of Hindustani music, and also introducing the ragas Zeelaf and Sarparda. He created the genre of the qawwali, which fuses Persian melody and beat on a dhrupad like structure. A number of instruments (such as the sitar) were also introduced in his time.
Amir Khusrau is sometimes credited with the origins of the khayal form, but the record of his compositions do not appear to support this. It is possible that the word khayal was a corruption of qawwali, but it is more likely that it has a separate etymolgy (the Arabic word khyal means mood or capriciousness). The compositions by the court musician Niyamat Khan (Sadarang) in the court of Muhammad Shah 'Rangiley' bear a closer affinity to the modern khyal, and suggests that 'Sadarang' may have been the father of modern day 'Khayal'.
Much of the musical forms innovated by these pioneers merged with the Hindu tradition, composed in the popular language of the people (as opposed to Sanskrit) in the work of composers like Kabir or Nanak. This can be seen as part of a larger Bhakti tradition, (strongly related to the Vaishnavite movement) which remained influential across several centuries; notable figures include Jayadeva (11th century), Vidyapati (1375 AD), Chandidas (14th-15th century), and Meerabai (1555-1603 AD).
As the Mughal Empire came into closer contact with Hindus, especially under Jalal ud-Din Akbar, music and dance also flourished. Particularly, the legendary musician Tansen is recognized as having introduced a number of innovations, ragas as well as particular compositions. Legend has it that upon his rendition of a night-time raga in the morning, the entire city fell under a hush and clouds gathered in the sky, or that he could light fires by singing raga Deepak, which is supposed to be composed of notes in high octaves.
At the royal house of Gwalior, Raja Mansingh Tomar (1486-1516 AD) also participated in the shift from Sanskrit to the local idiom (Hindi) as the language for classical songs. He himself penned several volumes of compositions on religious and secular themes, and was also responsible for the major compilation, the Mankutuhal (book of curiosity), which outlined the major forms of music prevalent at the time. In particular, the musical form known as dhrupad saw considerable development in his court and remained a strong point of the Gwalior gharana for many centuries.
After the dissolution of the Mughal empire, the patronage of music continued in smaller princely kingdoms like Lucknow, Patiala, Banaras, giving rise to the diversity of styles that is today known as gharanas. Many musician families obtained large grants of land which made them self sufficient, at least for a few generations (e.g. the Sham Chaurasia gharana). Meanwhile the Bhakti and Sufi traditions continued to develop, and interact with the different gharanas and groups.
[edit] Modern era
In the 20th century, the power of the maharajahs and nawabs declined, and so did their patronage. With the expulsion of Wajid Ali Shah to [[Calcutta] after 1857, the Lucknavi musical tradition came to influence the music of renaissance Bengal, giving rise to the tradition of Ragpradhan gan around the turn of the century.
In the early 20th century, Pandit Vishnu Digambar Paluskar emerged as an extremely talented musician and organizer (despite having been blinded at age 12). His books on music, as well as the Gandharva Mahavidyalaya music school that he opened in Lahore in 1901 helped foster a movement away from the closed gharana system.
Paluskar's contemporary (and occasional rival) 'Chaturpandit' Vishnu Narayan Bhatkhande recognized the many rifts that had appeared in the structure of Indian classical music. He undertook extensive research visits to a large number of gharanas, Hindustani as well as Carnatic, collecting and comparing compositions. Between 1909 and 1932, he brought out the monumental Hindustani Sangeetha Padhathi (4 vols)[5], which suggested a transcription for Indian music and described the many traditions in this notation. Finally, it consolidated the many musical forms of Hindustani Classical music into a number of thaats, a system that had been proposed in the Carnatic tradition in the 17th century. The Ragas as we know them today were consolidated in this landmark work.
In modern times, the government-run All India Radio and Radio Pakistan helped to bring the artistes in front of the public, countering the loss of the patronage system. The first star was Gauhar Jan, whose career was born out of Fred Gaisberg's first recordings of Indian music in 1902. With the advance of films and other public media, musicians started to make their living through public performances. With exposure to Western music, some of these melodies also started merging with classical forms, especially in the stream of popular music. A number of gurukuls, such as that of Alauddin Khan at Maihar, flourished. In more modern times, corporate support has also been forthcoming (e.g. the ITC Sangeet Research Academy).
[edit] Vocal music
Hindustani classical music is primarily vocal-centric, insofar as the musical forms were designed primarily for vocal performance, and many instruments were designed and evaluated as to how well they emulate the human voice.
[edit] Types of compositions
The major vocal forms-cum-styles associated with Hindustani classical music are dhrupad, khayal, and thumri. Other forms include the dhamar, tarana, trivat, chaiti, kajari, tappa, tapkhayal, ashtapadi, ghazal and bhajan. Of these, some forms fall within the crossover to folk or semi-classical ('light' classical) music, as they often do not adhere to the rigorous rules and regulations of 'pure' classical music.
[edit] Dhrupad
Dhrupad is the Hindu sacred style of singing, traditionally performed by male singers. It is performed with a tanpura and a pakhawaj as instrumental accompaniments. The lyrics, which were in Sanskrit centuries ago, are presently sung in Brajbhasha, a medieval form of Hindi that was spoken in Mathura. The Rudra Veena, an ancient string instrument, is used in instrumental music in the style of Dhrupad.
Dhrupad music is primarily devotional in theme and content. It contains recitals in praise of particular deities. Dhrupad compositions begin with a relatively long and acyclic Alap, where the syllables of the mantra "Om Anant tam Taran Tarini Twam Hari Om Narayan, Anant Hari Om Narayan" is recited. The alap gradually unfolds into a more rhythmic Jod and Jhala sections. This is followed by a rendition of Bandish, with the pakhawaj as an accompaniment. The greatest of Indian musicians, Tansen sung in the Dhrupad style. A lighter form of Dhrupad, called Dhamar, is sung primarily during the festival of Holi.
Dhrupad was the main form of northern Indian classical music until two centuries ago, but has since then given way to the somewhat less austere, khyal, a more free-form style of singing. Since losing its main patrons among the royalty in Indian princely states, Dhrupad ran the risk of becoming extinct in the first half of the twentieth century. Fortunately, the efforts by a few proponents from the Dagar family have led to its revival and eventual popularization in India and in the West.
Some of the best known vocalists who sing in the Dhrupad style are the members of the Dagar lineage, including the late Senior Dagar brothers, i.e. Us. Nasir Moinuddin Dagar and Us. Nasir Aminuddin Dagar, the late Junior Dagar brothers, i.e. Us. Nasir Zahiruddin and Us. Nasir Faiyazuddin Dagar, Us. Wasifuddin Dagar, Us. Fariduddin Dagar, Us. Sayeeduddin Dagar. Other leading exponents include Dr. Ritwik Sanyal, Pt. Uday Bhawalkar, and the Gundecha brothers, i.e. Ramakant and Umakant Gundecha, who have received training from some of the Dagars. Leading vocalists outside the Dagar lineage include the Mallik family.
[edit] Khyal
A form of vocal music, khayal is almost entirely improvised and very emotional in nature. A khyal consists of around 4-8 lines of lyrics set to a tune. The singer then uses these few lines as the basis for improvisation. Though its origins are shrouded in mystery, the 15th century rule of Hussain Shah Sharqi and was popular by the 18th century rule of Mohammed Shah. The best-known composer of the period was Sadarang, a pen name for Niamat KhanAdarang,Manrang and kadar bakhsha,Nisar Hussain Khan Gwalior wale..
Later performers include Ustad Alladiya Khan, Abdul Karim Khan, Pt.Dattatreya Vishnu Paluskar, Faiyaz Khan, Pt.Vinayak Rao Patwardhan, Pt. Shankar Rao Vyas, Pt.Narain Rao Vyas, Ut.Nazakat Ali And Ut. Salamat Ali Khan, Pt.Eknath Sarolkar, Pt.Kashinath Pant Marathe, Bade Ghulam Ali Khan, Kesarbai Kerkar, Mogubai Kurdikar, Krishnarao Shankar Pandit, Amir Khan, Pt. Gajananrao Joashi, Pt. Ram Marathe, Pt. Ratnakar Pai, Kumar Gandharva, Jitendra Abhisheki, Pt. A. Kanan and Mallikarjun Mansur.
Some of the present day vocalists are Bhimsen Joshi, Gangubai Hangal, Pt. Yeshwantbua Joshi, Girija Devi, Kishori Amonkar, Pandit Jasraj, Satyasheel Deshpande, Iqbal Ahmad Khan, Dr. Rajshekhar Mansur, Pt Ulhas Kashalkar, Pt. Arun Bhaduri, Malini Rajurkar, Prabakar Karekar, Rashid Khan, Aslam Khan, Sanjeev Abhyankar, Shruti Sadolikar, Ashwini Bhide, Ajay Pohankar, Chandrashekar Swami, Pt. Venkatesh Kumar, Mashkoor Ali Khan,Vidushi Subhra Guha,Pt. Parameshwar Hegde, Indrani Choudhury, Pt. Ganapathi Bhat.
[edit] Tarana
Another vocal form, Tarana are songs that are used to convey a mood of elation and are usually performed towards the end of a concert. They consist of a few lines of rhythmic sounds or bols set to a tune. The singer uses these few lines as a basis for very fast improvisation. It can be compared to the Tillana of Carnatic music.
[edit] Thumri
Thumri is a semiclassical vocal form said to have begun with the court of Nawab Wajid Ali Shah, 1847-1856. There are three types of thumri: Punjabi, Lucknavi and poorab ang thumri. The lyrics are typically in a proto-Hindi language called Braj bhasha and are usually romantic.
[edit] Ghazal
Ghazal is an originally Persian form of poetry. In the Indian sub-continent, Ghazal became the most common form of poetry in the Urdu language and was popularized by classical poets like Mir Taqi Mir, Ghalib, Zauq and Sauda amongst the North Indian literary elite. Vocal music set to this mode of poetry is popular with multiple variations across Iran, Afghanistan, Central Asia, Turkey, India and Pakistan. Ghazal exists in multiple variations, including folk and pop forms but its greatest exponents sing it in a semi-classical style..
[edit] Instrumental music
Although Hindustani music clearly is focused on the vocal performance, instrumental forms have existed since ancient times. Infact, in recent decades, especially outside South Asia, instrumental Hindustani music is arguably more popular than vocal music, perhaps because the lyrics in the latter are not comprehensible.
A number of musical instruments are associated with Hindustani classical music. The veena, a string instrument, was traditionally regarded as the most important, but few play it today and it has largely been superseded by its cousins the sitar and the sarod, both of which owe their origin to Persian influences. Other plucked/struck string instruments include the surbahar, sursringar, santoor and various versions of the slide guitar. Among bowed instruments, the sarangi, esraj (or dilruba) and violin are popular. The bansuri (bamboo flute), shehnai and harmonium are important wind instruments. In the percussion ensemble, the tabla and the pakhavaj are the most popular. Various other instruments (including the banjo and the piano) have also been used in varying degrees.
Some representative performers (these lists are by no means comprehensive nor are intended to be):
Veena: Dabir Khann, Birendra Kishore Roy Chowdhury, Zia Mohiuddin Dagar, Bahauddin Dagar, Asad Ali Khan, Suvir Misra, Jeff Lewis
Vichitra Veena: Dr. Lalmani Misra, Pt. Gopal Krishna, Dr. Gopal Shankar Misra,Mrs.Radhika Budhkar
Sitar: Imdad Khan, Enayet Khan, Wahid Khan, Mushtaq Ali Khan Ravi Shankar, Vilayat Khan, Nikhil Banerjee,Manilal Nag, Purnendu Shekhar Sengupta(Kanu Babu), Rais Khan, Abdul Halim Jaffer Khan, Imrat Khan, Shahid Parvez, Indranil Bhattacharya, Santosh Banerjee, Kalyani Roy, Budhaditya Mukherjee, Sanjoy Bandopadhyay, Kartik Seshadri, Shriram umdekar Purbayan Chatterjee
Sarod: Allauddin Khan, Brij Narayan, Hafiz Ali Khan, Radhika Mohan Moitra, Timir Baran, Ali Akbar Khan, Jatin Bhattacharya, Buddhadev Das Gupta, Vasant Rai, Sharan Rani, Dhyanesh Khan, Aashish Khan, Ustad Amjad Ali Khan,Mukesh Sharma
Surbahar: Imdad Khan, Wahid Khan, Enayet Khan, Annapurna Devi, Imrat Khan
Shehnai: Bismillah Khan, Ali Ahmed Khan
Bansuri: Pannalal Ghosh, Hariprasad Chaurasia, Raghunath Seth, Bari Siddiqui
Santoor: Shivkumar Sharma,Tarun Bhattachrya, Bhajan Sopori, Omprakash Chaurasiya
Sarangi: Ram Narayan, Bundu Khan, Ustad Sultan Khan, Abdul Latif Khan
Esraj: Ashesh Bandopadhyay, Ranadhir Roy
Violin: Parur Sundaram Iyer,V. G. Jog, Gajananrao Joshi, N. Rajam, Allaudin Khan, L. Shankar, L. Subramaniam, Kala Ramnath, Sisir Kana Dhar Choudhury
Harmonium: Pt. Gyan Prakash Gosh,Pt. Manohar Chimote,Ustad Zamir Ahmed Khan,Ustad Bhure Khan
Tabla: Gyan Prokash Ghosh,Shankar Ghosh,Ahmed Jan Thirakwa, Anindo Chaterjee, Chatur Lal, Shamta Prasad, Kanthe Maharaj, Alla Rakha, Arup Chattopadhyay, Anokhelal Misra, Keramatullah Khan, Kishen Maharaj, Zakir Hussain, Aban E. Mistry, Yogmaya Shukla,Shubhankar Banerjee, Subrata Bhattacharya, Debashis Choudhury.
Guitar, slide (modified): Brij Bhushan Kabra, Vishwa Mohan Bhatt, Debashish Bhattacharya
[edit] Principles of Hindustani music
The rhythmic organization is based on rhythmic patterns called tala. The melodic foundations are "melodic modes" called thaats, thats are part of "musical personalities" called ragas. Thaat and Raga are often mixed and confused. See the early 20th century musicological research of Bhatkhande for further details.
Thaats - and so Ragas - may consist of up to seven scale degrees, or swara. Hindustani musicians name these pitches using a system called sargam, the equivalent of Western movable do solfege:sa = dore = rega = mima = fapa = soldha= lani = tisa = doBoth systems repeat at the octave. The difference between sargam and solfege is that re, ga, ma, dha, and ni can refer to either "pure" (shuddh) or altered--"flat/soft" (komal) or "sharp" (tivra)--versions of their respective scale degrees. As with movable do solfege, the notes are heard relative to an arbitrary tonic that varies from performance to performance, rather than to fixed frequencies, as on a xylophone.
The fine intonational differences between different instances of the same swara are sometimes called śruti. The three primary registers of Indian classical music are Mandra, Madhya and Tara. Since the octave location is not fixed, it is also possible to use provenances in mid-register (such as Madra-Madhya or Madhya-Tara) for certain ragas. A typical rendition of Hindustani raga involves 2 stages:
Alap - a rhythmically free improvising to the rules for the raag in order to give life to the raga, shape out its characteristics, further divisible into alap, jod and jhala.
Bandeesh/Gat: a fixed composition set in a specific raga, performed with rhythmic accompaniment by a tabla or pakhavaj. There are different ways of systematizing the parts of a composition, either:1.sthay,2.antara,3.samcari,4.abhog.or lets say:A slow compositionB variations of the compositionC fast compositionD variations on the fast interpretationE speeding up, excelling more and more in performance til end
